Calibration of fluidic devices

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides methods of calibrating a fluidic device useful for detecting an analyte of interest in a bodily fluid. The invention also provides methods for assessing the reliability of an assay for an analyte in a bodily fluid with the use of a fluidic device. Another aspect of the invention is a method for performing a trend analysis on the concentration of an analyte in a subject using a fluidic device.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/678,801, filed May 9,2005 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/705,489, filed Aug. 5, 2005 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/717,192, filed Sep. 16, 2005, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/721,097, filed Sep. 28, 2005 which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The discovery of a vast number of biomarkers implicated in a wide variety of biological processes and the establishment of miniaturized microfluidic systems have opened up avenues to devise methods and systems for the prediction, diagnosis and treatment of diseases in a point-of-care setting. Point-of-care testing is particularly desirable because it rapidly delivers results to medical practitioners and enables faster consultation.

Performing assays, particularly immunoassays, on microfluidic systems of patient samples requires careful, precise calibration using data gathered in parallel with the sample measurement by measuring known standards or calibrators using the same assay protocol and reagents, or data provided by a manufacturer that are specific to a particular lot of reagents and assay conditions. Generally, such manufacturer provided calibration data are associated with strict temperature and other assay related conditions. Such calibration information is critical in accurately determining the relationship between the response or output from the assay system and the analyte concentration in a sample. Errors due to mis-calibration of distributed assay systems, especially in the case of immunoassays and particularly in the case of immunoassays that do not use “excess” reagents could lead to significant errors in determining the concentration of an analyte of interest.

There is therefore a significant need for methods that would improve the calibration in hand held or disposable assay units, particularly in those units where the sample and/or reagent volumes are in the microliter and nanoliter ranges, where maintaining a controlled temperature may be impractical, where the sample may not be “clean” such that errors are caused by interfering substances, or where it is difficult to maintain the desired conditions such as temperature, reagent quality, or sample volume.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides a method of improving the accuracy of calibrating a fluidic system. The method comprises providing a system for detecting an analyte in a bodily fluid from a subject comprising a fluidic device for providing said bodily fluid, said fluidic device having a calibration assembly and a reader assembly for detecting the presence of said analyte, measuring one or more parameters of a calibration curve associated with said fluidic device, comparing said one or more parameters with predetermined parameters associate with said fluidic device, and adjusting a signal output by the ratio of said one or more parameters and said predetermined parameters.

In one aspect of the method the predetermined parameters are parameters determined at the time the fluidic device is manufactured.

In another aspect of the method the predetermined parameters are replaced with said measured one or more parameters to be used in a calibration curve to scale a signal to determine said analyte concentration.

The present invention provides another method of improving the calibration of a fluidic system The method comprises measuring a first signal in an original sample comprising a known quantity of an analyte, measuring a second signal after spiking said original sample with a known quantity of said analyte, plotting the difference between said first and second signals against a target value, wherein said target value is a signal expected for said known quantity of said analyte, and arriving at a best fit of parameters by minimizing the sum of the square of the differences between said target value and calculated analyte values.

In one aspect of the method the sample is provided to a fluidic device, the fluidic device comprises a sample collection unit and an assay assembly, wherein said sample collection unit allows a sample of bodily fluids to react with reactants contained within said assay assembly.

The present invention further provides a method of assessing the reliability of an assay for an analyte in a bodily fluid with the use of a fluidic device. The method comprises providing a system, the system comprising a fluidic device, said fluidic device comprising a sample collection unit and an assay assembly, wherein said sample collection unit allows a sample of bodily fluid to react with reactants contained within said assay assembly, for detecting the presence of an analyte in a bodily fluid from a subject, and a reader assembly for detecting the presence of said analyte, and sensing with a sensor a change in operation parameters under which the system normally operates.

One aspect of the method further comprises improving the reliability of said assay by adjusting the operating parameters to effect normal functioning of the system.

In one aspect the sensor is associated with the fluidic device and is capable of communicating the change to the reader assembly.

In some aspects the change is a change in temperature, pressure, or the presence of moisture.

In one aspect the sensor is associated with the reader assembly and is capable of communicating said change to an external device.

One aspect of the method further comprises adjusting a calibration step of said system.

One aspect of the method further comprises wirelessly communicating said change via a handheld device.

Further provided in the present invention is a method of performing a trend analysis on the concentration of an analyte in a subject. The method comprises providing a fluidic device comprising at least one sample collection unit, an immunoassay assembly containing immunoassay reagents, a plurality of channels in fluid communication with said sample collection unit and/or said immunoassay assembly, actuating said fluidic device and directing said immunoassay reagents within said fluidic device, allowing a sample of bodily fluid of less than about 500 ul to react with said immunoassay reagents contained within said assay immunoassay assembly to yield a detectable signal indicative of the presence of said analyte in said sample, detecting said detectable signal generated from said analyte collected in said sample of bodily fluid, and repeating the steps for a single patient over a period of time to detect concentrations of said anayte, thereby performing the trend analysis.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 is an embodiment showing multiple components of the present system.

FIG. 2 shows different layers of an exemplary fluidic device prior to assembly.

FIGS. 3 and 4 illustrate the fluidic network within an exemplary fluidic device.

FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate a side view of an exemplary fluidic device is combination with actuating elements of the reader assembly.

FIG. 7 shows a typical assay dose-response data for a two-step assay for TxB2.

FIG. 8 shows dose responses computed with and without errors in calibration parameters.

FIG. 9 shows computed concentration errors produced by 1% mis-estimation of A and D calibration values.

FIG. 10 illustrates calibration using a “differential” approach.

FIG. 11 shows the verification of calibration using the “1-point spike” method (log scale).

FIG. 12 shows the verification of calibration using the “1-point spike” method (linear scale).

FIG. 13 shows dose-response of assays calibrated against a plasma sample with a very low TxB2 concentration.

FIG. 14 shows use of spike recovery to eliminate calibration errors of the “C” parameter.

FIG. 15 illustrates calculating differences in concentration between two samples.

FIG. 16 illustrates an assay of plasma samples.

FIG. 17 shows the time course of assay signal generation.

FIG. 18 shows the impact of change in calibration parameter “A” on assay calibration.

FIG. 19 shows how a reference therapeutic index would be computed.

FIG. 20 illustrates computing the therapeutic index.

FIG. 21 shows multiple regression analysis of the computed therapeutic index.

FIG. 22 is an illustration of the relationship between measured drug, analyte and biomarker concentration and therapeutic index.

FIG. 23 is an illustration of the application of this invention to minimize adverse drug reactions.

FIG. 24 shows exemplary patient input values.

FIG. 25 shows use of a therapeutic index to follow treatment progression in an autism patient.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

One aspect of the present invention is a system for detecting an analyte in a sample of bodily fluid. In some embodiments a bodily fluid sample is taken from a patient into a fluidic device comprising a sample collection unit, an assay assembly, fluidic channels, and assay reagents. Using an assay, an analyte present in the bodily fluid sample can generate a signal indicative of the presence of the analyte. A reader assembly comprising a detection assembly can then detect the signal. A communications assembly can then transmit the detected signal to an external device for processing. In preferred embodiments, the external device comprises a protocol to run on the fluidic device based on the identification of the fluidic device.

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary system of the present invention. As illustrated, a fluidic device provides a bodily fluid from a patient and can be inserted into a reader assembly. The fluidic device may take a variety of configurations and in some embodiments the fluidic device may be in the form of a cartridge. An identifier (ID) detector may detect an identifier on the fluidic device. The identifier detector communicates with a communication assembly via a controller which transmits the identifier to an external device. The external device sends a protocol stored on the external device to the communication assembly based on the identifier. The protocol to be run on the fluidic device may comprise instructions to the controller of the reader assembly to perform the protocol on the fluidic device, including but not limited to a particular assay to be run and/or a detection method to perform. Once the assay is performed on the fluidic device, a signal indicative of an analyte in the bodily fluid sample may be generated and detected by a detection assembly. The detected signal may then be communicated to the communications assembly, where it can be transmitted to the external device for processing, including without limitation, calculation of the analyte concentration in the sample.

FIG. 2 illustrates exemplary layers of a fluidic device according to the present invention prior to assembly of the fluidic device which is disclosed in more detail below. FIGS. 3 and 4 illustrate the fluidic network of an exemplary fluidic device. The different layers are designed and assembled to form a three dimensional fluidic channel network. A sample collection unit 4 provides a sample of bodily fluid from a patient. As will be explained in further detail below a reader assembly comprises actuating elements (not shown) that can actuate the fluidic device to start and direct the flow of a bodily fluid sample and assay reagents in the fluidic device. In some embodiments actuating elements first cause the flow of sample in the fluidic device 2 from sample collection unit 4 to reaction sites 6, move the sample upward in the fluidic device from point G′ to point G, and then to waste chamber 8. The actuating elements then initiate the flow of reagents from reagent chambers 10 to point B′, point C′, and point D′, upward to points B, C, and D, respectively. The reagents then move to point A, down to point A′, and then to waste chamber 8 in a manner similar to the sample.

One of the advantages of the present invention is that any reagents necessary to perform an assay on a fluidic device according to the present invention are preferably on-board, or housed within the fluidic device before, during, and after the assay. In this way the only inlet or outlet from the fluidic device is preferably the bodily fluid sample initially provided by the fluidic device. This design also helps create an easily disposable fluidic device where all fluids or liquids remain in the device. The on-board design also prevents leakage from the fluidic device into the reader assembly which should remain free from contamination from the fluidic device.

In a preferred embodiment there is at least one reagent chamber. In some embodiments there may be two, three, four, five, six, or more, or any number of reagent chambers as are necessary to fulfill the purposes of the invention. A reagent chamber is preferably in fluid communication with at least one reaction site, and when the fluidic device is actuated as described herein, reagents contained in said reagent chambers are released into the fluidic channels within the fluidic device.

Reagents according to the present invention include without limitation wash buffers, substrates, dilution buffers, conjugates, enzyme-labeled conjugates, DNA amplifiers, sample diluents, wash solutions, sample pre-treatment reagents including additives such as detergents, polymers, chelating agents, albumin-binding reagents, enzyme inhibitors, enzymes, anticoagulants, red-cell agglutinating agents, antibodies or other materials necessary to run an assay on a fluidic device. An enzyme conjugate can be either a polyclonal antibody or monoclonal antibody labeled with an enzyme, such as alkaline phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase. In some embodiments the reagents are immunoassay reagents.

In some embodiments a reagent chamber contains approximately about 50 μl to about 1 ml of fluid. In some embodiments the chamber may contain about 100 μl of fluid. The volume of liquid in a reagent chamber may vary depending on the type of assay being run or the sample of bodily fluid provided. In some embodiments the reagents are initially stored dry and liquified upon initiation of the assay being run on the fluidic device.

A variety of assays may be performed on a fluidic device according to the present invention to detect an analyte of interest in a sample. Using labels in an assay as a way of detection the concentration of the analyte of interest is well known in the art. In some embodiments labels are detectable by spectroscopic, photochemical, biochemical, immunochemical, or chemical means. For example, useful nucleic acid labels include 32P, 35S, fluorescent dyes, electron-dense reagents, enzymes, biotin, dioxigenin, or haptens and proteins for which antisera or monoclonal antibodies are available. A wide variety of labels suitable for labeling biological components are known and are reported extensively in both the scientific and patent literature, and are generally applicable to the present invention for the labeling of biological components. Suitable labels include radionucleotides, enzymes, substrates, cofactors, inhibitors, fluorescent moieties, chemiluminescent moieties, bioluminescent labels, calorimetric labels, or magnetic particles. Labeling agents optionally include, for example, monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies, proteins, or other polymers such as affinity matrices, carbohydrates or lipids. Detection proceeds by any of a variety of known methods, including spectrophotometric or optical tracking of radioactive or fluorescent markers, or other methods which track a molecule based upon size, charge or affinity. A detectable moiety can be of any material having a detectable physical or chemical property. Such detectable labels have been well-developed in the field of gel electrophoresis, column chromatograpy, solid substrates, spectroscopic techniques, and the like, and in general, labels useful in such methods can be applied to the present invention. Thus, a label includes without limitation any composition detectable by spectroscopic, photochemical, biochemical, immunochemical, electrical, optical, thermal, or chemical means.

In some embodiments assays performed on the fluidic device will generate photons in the reaction sites indicative of the presence of an analyte of interest. To ensure that a given photon count, for example, detected from a reaction site correlates with an accurate concentration of an analyte of interest in a sample, it is preferably advantageous to calibrate the fluidic device before the detection step. Calibrating a fluidic device at the point of manufacturing, for example, may be insufficient to ensure an accurate analyte concentration is determined because a fluidic device may be shipped prior to use and may undergo changes in temperature, for example, so that a calibration performed at manufacturing does not take into effect any subsequent changes to the structure of the fluidic device or reagents contained therein. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a fluidic device has a calibration assembly that is similar to the assay assembly in components and design. One difference is that a sample is preferably not introduced into the calibration assembly. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, a calibration assembly occupies about half of the fluidic device 2 and includes reagent chamber 32, reactions site 34, a waste chamber 36, and fluidic channel 38. Similar to the assay assembly, the number of reagent chambers and reaction sites may vary depending on the assay being run on the fluidic device and the number of analytes being detected.

An additional method of improving the accuracy of a calculated analyte concentration or pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic parameter measured according to the present invention is to provide a sensor on either the fluidic device or reader assembly, or both, that can sense, for example, changes in temperature or pressure that could impact the performance of the present system.

A fluidic device and reader assembly may, after manufacturing, be shipped to the end user, together or individually. As a reader assembly is preferably repeatedly used with multiple fluidic devices, it may be necessary to have sensors on both the fluidic device and reader assembly to detect such changes during shipping, for example. During shipping, pressure or temperature changes can impact the performance of a number of components of the present system, and as such a sensor located on either the fluidic device or reader assembly can relay these changes to, for example, the external device so that adjustments can be made during calibration or during data processing on the external device, or both. For example, if the pressure of a fluidic device dropped to a certain level during shipping, a sensor located on the fluidic device could detect this change and convey this information to the reader assembly when it is inserted into the reader assembly by the user. There may be an additional detection device in the reader assembly to perform this, or such a device may be incorporated into another system component. In some embodiments this information may be wirelessly transmitted to either the reader assembly or the external device. Likewise, a sensor in the reader assembly can detect similar changes. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to have a sensor in the shipping packaging as well, either instead of in the system components or in addition to.

In some embodiments at least one of the different layers of the fluidic device may be constructed of polymeric substrates. Non limiting examples of polymeric materials include polystyrene, polycarbonate, polypropylene, polydimethysiloxanes (PDMS), polyurethane, polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polysulfone.

In some embodiments the reader assembly comprises an identifier detector for detecting or reading an identifier on the fluidic device, a controller for automatically controlling the detection assembly and also mechanical components of the reader assembly, for example, pumps and/or valves for controlling or directing fluid through the fluidic device, a detection device for detecting a signal created by an assay run on the fluidic device, and a communication assembly for communicating with an external device.

In preferred embodiments the reader assembly houses a controller which controls actuating elements which may include a pump and a series of valves to control and direct the flow of liquid within the fluidic device. In some embodiments the reader assembly may comprises multiple pumps. The sample and reagents are preferably pulled through the fluidic channels by a vacuum force created by sequentially opening and closing at least one valve while activating a pump within the reader assembly. Methods of using a valve and pump to create a vacuum force are well known. While a negative pulling force may be used, a positive or pushing force may also be generated by at least one pump and valve according to the present invention. In other embodiments movement of fluid on the fluidic device may be by electro-osmotic, capillary, piezoelectric, or microactuator action.

FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate an exemplary sequence to initiate the flow of a reagent within the fluidic device. An actuation plate 18 in the reader assembly comprises a non-coring needle or pin 20 which when lowered flexes the top cover 16, as it is preferably made of strong, flexible elastomeric material. However, the easily rupturable foil 12 then ruptures due to the stress induced by the flexing of top cover 16. Valves located downstream to the reagent chamber 10 puncture different areas of foil in the fluidic device and can then work in tandem with a pump within the reader assembly to create a vacuum force to pull the reagent out of the reagent chamber 10 into a fluidic channel 14 and then direct the flow of the reagent to a reaction site. At least one valve is preferably fluidically connected to a pump housed within the reader assembly. One of the advantages of this embodiment is that no on-chip pump is required, which, at least, decreases the size and cost of the fluidic device, and allows the device to be disposable.

A reaction assembly preferably houses a detection assembly for detecting a signal produced by at least one assay on the fluidic device. FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary position of a detection device below the fluidic device after it is inside the reader assembly. The detection assembly may be above the fluidic device or at a different orientation in relation to the fluidic device based on, for example, the type of assay being performed and the detection mechanism.

A communication assembly is preferably housed within the reader assembly and is capable of transmitting and receiving information wirelessly from an external device. Such wireless communication may be bluetooth or RTM technology. Various communication methods can be utilized, such as a dial-up wired connection with a modem, a direct link such as a T1, ISDN, or cable line. In preferred embodiments a wireless connection is established using exemplary wireless networks such as cellular, satellite, or pager networks, or a local data transport system such as Ethernet or token ring over a local area network. In some embodiments the information is encrypted before it is transmitted over a wireless network. In some embodiments the communication assembly may contain a wireless infrared communication component for sending and receiving information.

In preferred embodiments an external device communicates with the communication assembly within the reader assembly. An external device can wirelessly communicate with a reader assembly, but can also communicate with a third party, including without limitation a patient, medical personnel, clinicians, laboratory personnel, or others in the health care industry.

In some embodiments the external device can be a computer system, server, or other electronic device capable of storing information or processing information. In some embodiments the external device includes one or more computer systems, servers, or other electronic devices capable of storing information or processing information. In some embodiments an external device may include a database of patient information, for example but not limited to, medical records or patient history, clinical trial records, or preclinical trial records. In preferred embodiments, an external device stores protocols to be run on a fluidic device which can be transmitted to the communication assembly of a reader assembly when it has received an identifier indicating which fluidic device has been inserted in the reader assembly. In some embodiments a protocol can be dependent on a fluidic device identifier. In some embodiments the external device stores more than one protocol for each fluidic device. In other embodiments patient information on the external device includes more than one protocol. In preferred embodiments the external server stores mathematical algorithms to process a photon count sent from a communication assembly and in some embodiments to calculate the analyte concentration in a bodily fluid sample.

A server can include a database and system processes. A database can reside within the server, or it can reside on another server system that is accessible to the server. As the information in a database may contains sensitive information, a security system can be implemented that prevents unauthorized users from gaining access to the database.

One advantage of the present invention is that information can be transmitted from the external device back to not only the reader assembly, but to other parties or other external devices, for example without limitation, a PDA or cell phone. Such communication can be accomplished via a wireless network as disclosed herein. In some embodiments a calculated analyte concentration or other patient information can be sent to, for example but not limited to, medical personal or the patient.

In some embodiments a sample of bodily fluid can first be provided to the fluidic device by any of the methods described herein. The fluidic device can then be inserted into the reader assembly. An identification detector housed within the reader assembly can detect an identifier of the fludic device and communicate the identifier to a communication assembly, which is preferably housed within the reader assembly. The communication assembly then transmits the identifier to an external device which transmits a protocol to run on the fluidic device based on the identifier to the communication assembly. A controller preferably housed within the reader assembly controls actuating elements including at least one pump and one valve which interact with the fluidic device to control and direct fluid movement within the device. In some embodiments the fist step of the assay is a wash cycle where all the surfaces within the fluidic device are wetted using a wash buffer. The fluidic device is then calibrated using a calibration assembly by running the same reagents as will be used in the assay through the calibration reaction sites, and then a luminescence signal from the reactions sites is detected by the detection means, and the signal is used in calibrating the fluidic device. The sample containing the analyte is introduced into the fluidic channel. The sample may be diluted and further separated into plasma or other desired component at a filter. The separated sample now flows through the reaction sites and any present analytes bind to probes bound thereon. The plasma of sample fluid is then flushed out of the reaction wells into a waste chamber. Depending on the assay being run, appropriate reagents are directed through the reaction sites to carry out the assay. All the wash buffers and other reagents used in the various steps, including the calibration step, are collected in wash tanks. The signal produced in the reation sites is then detected by any of the methods described herein.

The term “analyte” according to the present invention includes without limitation drugs, pharmaceutical agents, drug metabolites, biomarkers such as expressed proteins and cell markers, antibodies, serum proteins, cholesterol, polysaccharides, nulceic acids, biological analytes, biomarker, gene, protein, or hormone, or any combination thereof.

Communication between a reader assembly and an external storage device allows for a reader assembly of the present invention to download a fluidic device-specific protocol to run on the fluidic device based on the identity of the fluidic device. This allows a reader assembly to be used interchangeably with any appropriate fluidic device described herein. In addition, the external device can store a plurality of protocols associated with a given fluidic device, and depending on, for example, a subject's treatment regime or plan, different protocols can be communicated from the external device to the reader assembly to be run on the fluidic device to detect a variety of analytes. The external device can also store a plurality of protocols associated not only with a fluidic device, but also with a particular subject or subjects, such that a protocol can be associated with a subject as well as with a fluidic device.

In some embodiments a method of improving the accuracy of an assay performed on a fluidic device used to detect an analyte in a bodily fluid comprises providing a system for detecting the presence of an analyte in a bodily fluid from a subject comprising a fluidic device for providing said bodily fluid and a reader assembly for detecting the presence of said analyte, and providing a sensor to detect a change in said system which may alter the accuracy of said detecting said presence of said analyte.

In some embodiments a sensor may be present either in the fluidic device, the reader assembly, both, or in some cases it may be advantageous to include a sensor in the packaging in which the fluidic device and/or reader assembly are packaged. The sensor can, for example without limitation, detect temperate or pressure changes that may provide for an inaccurate analyte concentration calculation. For example, if the temperature of reagents stored in said fluidic device falls outside an acceptable temperature range, this may indicate that the detection will not be accurate using the then existing calibration and processing algorithms, for example. Likewise, for example, the pressure in the pump in the reader assembly may fall outside an acceptable range. In some embodiments a moisture sensor is provided to detect the presence of moisture in the cartridge before the assay begins. In some embodiments there may be thiosyanate in one layer of the fluidic device and iron salt in another layer, wherein a dye is formed when these are mixed, whereby the dye is a visual indication of the presence of moisture.

In some disposable systems, particularly in those where sample acquisition is performed by the patient or end user, measurement errors are not uncommon. Significant errors due to, for example, patient handling of the sample, could be due to the sample collection method. A patient may not collect the correct volume of the sample, the collection may not be performed at the appropriate time, or the sample may not be handled in an appropriate manner, thus compromising the sample integrity. It may be advantageous when using a disposable system in which the patient controls the initial sample collection and handling to utilize methods for minimizing the consequences of such errors by, for example, either alerting the patient to repeat the test or use calibration steps to compensate for such errors.

Immunoassays have a characteristic response similar in form to the well-known Scatchard binding isotherm (Bound/Maximum Bound (B/B0)=Ligand Concentration/(K+Ligand Concentration) where B is the amount of the labeled analyte bound to a solid phase when analyte is present, B0 is the amount bound when no analyte is present and K is the dissociation constant. The mathematical form of such assay responses is hyperbolic.

Results of immunoassays of the types described above are typically analyzed using the known (ln-logit) or (log-logit) functions, in which the assay label (for example in a two-step process, alkaline phosphatase-labeled analyte) bound to a solid phase when analyte is present in the assay (“B”) is compared with the amount bound when no analyte is present (“B0)” to provide the ratio B/B0. Then, the “logit” function (logit=Log [(B/B0)/(1−B/B0)]) is plotted against Log (Analyte Concentration) resulting in a straight line. (Natural logarithms can also be used instead of logarithms to base 10). The slope and intercept of this plot can be used to derive simple equations that permit the calulation of (a) assay signal as a function of analyte concentration, or (b) analyte concentration as a function of assay signal. An example of such analysis is shown in FIG. 21 using Thromboxane as the analyte of interest. The best fit to the data is given by Equation 1: Signal=(A−D)/(1+(Analyte conc./C)ˆB)+D [Equation 1], where A is the signal at zero analyte concentration, D is the signal at infinite analyte concentration, C is the analyte concentration reached at a signal level half way between A and D, and B is a shape parameter. The relationship between analyte concentration and signal is given by: Analyte concentration=C*((((A−D)/(Signal−D)−1)ˆ(1/B)) [Equation 2], where A, B, C and D are identical to the parameters used in Equation 1.

It is possible to compute errors that occur from mis-calibration using the equations described herein above. (The Analyte Concentration function from Equation 2 is differentiated with respect to each potential variable A, B, C, D and Signal). Estimates of the difference between the ideal value of the variable and the actual value in the system are used as Δ values in the calculation (Δ(concentration)=(d(Concentration)/d(Param.))*Δ Param). Errors in calibration are reflected in erroneous values of A, B, C and D. Each of these parameters is influenced by a different factor. For example, temperature effects on calibration of immunoassays will have the strongest impact on the A, C and D parameters of the ln-logit calibration, while likely having a minimal impact on the shape parameter B. The detected signal, which in turn can be used to determine the analyte concentration, is biased by one or more of the following reader assembly and fluidic device characteristics: optics used in the instrument for signal measurement; temperature control; most chemical processes are highly temperature sensitive, including enzyme reactions, and equilibrium between antigens and antibodies; timing of assay steps; calibration relative to an “ideal” instrument; the inability of the patient to manually recalibrate the fluidic device when used; dimensions of the fluidic device; volume of the assay assembly and its shape; fluid movement within the device; timing and uniformity of fluid movement; efficiency in mixing (most assay methods used in disposables and employ microfluidics would involve some mixing). The following reagent variations can also contribute to a biased detected signal: reagent quantity; reagent dissolution (if it is in dry form); changes in activity of reagents following manufacture (instability) (This is particularly important for “distributed systems” where the disposable useful life is typically determined by reagents which can, for example, lose 20% of their activity. If they can be used without significantly compromising assay performance, the shelf-life of many expensive disposables could be extended several fold and severe constraints on disposable storage (refrigeration and the like) can be relaxed). In addition, when calibration is performed at the factory, small errors in the estimation of the calibration parameters can result in error in the calculated analyte concentration.

The magnitudes of these calibration errors and consequently errors introduced in estimating analyte concentrations can be quite significant. FIG. 7 shows the dose-response data for a two-step assay for Thromboxane. The top curve (Logit.test) in FIG. 8 shows a typical (ln-logit) assay response. When we adjust the level of the highest signal (A) and the lowest signal (D), shown as “Shift zero signal” and “Shift 100% signal”, respectively, the curves shift as seen in FIG. 8. The corresponding computed values of error in the concentration that would be calculated from Equation 2 were large (>20% across the entire range of the assay) as shown in FIG. 9. In FIG. 8, the signal is normalized by subtracting the D value from the signal and dividing the difference by (A−D):(Signal−D)/(A−D). This yields what is usually described as B/B₀ (the ratio of bound label at a given analyte concentration to that at zero analyte level). The ln-logit function was modified by adding 10% of (A−D) to D or subtracting 10% of (A−D) from A before recalculating the normalized signals (corresponding to two types of significant calibration error (shifting the value of A or D respectively). At signal levels intermediate between A and D the change made was adjusted by 10%*(Original signal−D)/(A−D). FIG. 9 shows that when modifications of only 1%*(A−D) were made, and concentration of the analyte was computed, errors in concentration were still significant at certain parts of the analyte concentration range.

Conventionally, a calibration exercise is performed in parallel with assaying the sample. This is, however, impractical in a self-contained, disposable assay system intended to be compact and inexpensive. To address any calibration challenges that may occur while assaying analytes using a fluidic device of the present invention, in some embodiments parameters A, or in preferred embodiments A and D, of Equation 1 described herein above, are measured within the fluidic device rather than using manufacturer's values or an external device. The value(s) is compared with the parameter values estimated when the fluidic device was calibrated by the manufacturer. Signal results are then adjusted using the following equation: Signal_(adjusted)=Signal*(A_(factory calibration)/A_(measured within the assay)) and the original calibration equation (Equation 1) is then used to calculate the analyte concentration. Alternatively, A and D values measured at the time of assay are substituted for the A and D values obtained during factory calibration. Typically the (A/D) calibration measurement would be made in a buffer sample, preferably for each analyte (in a multiple analyte assay device), or one analyte only, if each assay responds similarly to the various factors that alter the calibration parameters.

In some embodiments of this invention, the calibration parameters of Equation 1 are corrected using differential calibration. The following example using Thromboxane B2 as the analyte illustrates this approach. Thromboxane B2 (TxB2) (1.25 mg) was dissolved in a mixture of dimethylsulfoxide (342 μl) and water (342 μl). To this, 5 μl of a solution of 1-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)-3-ethyl-carbodiimide hydrochloride in water (0.1 g/ml) and 10 μl of a solution of n-hydroxy-succinimide in water (0.1 g/ml) were added. After 1 hour at room temperature the resulting NHS-ester of TxB2 was used in the preparation of TxB2 labeled with alkaline phosphatase (described below) without further purification. Alkaline phosphatase (bovine intestine, Sigma-Aldrich) was dissolved in phosphate-buffered saline at 1 mg/ml. To 1 ml of this solution 120 μl of the NHS-ester of TxB2 was added and the mixture allowed to react for 1 hour at room temperature. The enzyme-TxB2 conjugate was then purified overnight by dialysis against tris-buffered saline containing MgCl₂.

Described is an example of a two-step enzyme immunoassay where TxB2 is the analyte. Samples and mouse monoclonal anti-TxB2 (15 μl of Cayman Chemical Kit Catalog number 10005065, appropriately diluted into Assay Designs buffer) were added to 384-well plates to which anti-Mouse IgG had been immobilized ((Becton Dickenson 356177)). The sample was 30 μl of plasma diluted 1:4 with assay buffer (Assay Designs Correlate-CLIA™ kit 910-002) and supplemented with known concentrations of TxB2. Other types of sample (for example TxB2 dissolved in assay buffer) can be substituted.

Plates were covered to prevent evaporation and incubated at room temperature with gentle mixing (100 rpm) on an orbital shaker for 12 hours. The contents of the wells were then removed by aspiration. Thromboxane-labeled with alkaline phosphatase (25 μl diluted 1:1500 with assay buffer) was added and incubated at room temperature for 2 minutes. The contents of the wells were removed by aspiration and wells washed thrice with 100 μl wash buffer (from the Assay Designs Kit 910-002).

Enzyme bound to the wells was then measured by addition of 40 μl Lumiphos™ 530 substrate solution which contains (4-methoxy-4-(3-phosphate-phenyl-spiro-[1,2-dioxetane-3,2′-adamantane])). Incubation was allowed to proceed for 1 hour with orbital mixing and the luminescent product measured in a Molecular Devices MD5 Spectrometer (0.5 second integration time).

FIG. 7 shows the typical assay dose-response data for a two-step assay for TxB2. Using Equation 1, the parameters A, B, C and D are fitted to the curve shown in FIG. 7. As described herein, even small changes in values of the parameters A and D can have a significant impact on the measured concentration. Thus, any errors in computing A and D are magnified in the estimated analyte (TxB2) concentration. This concept is illustrated in FIGS. 8 and 9, where even a 1% change in (A−D) resulted in significant errors in estimating TxB2 concentrations in the samples. In FIG. 8, the signal is normalized by subtracting the D value and dividing the difference by (A−D) viz: (Signal−D)/(A−D). This calculates what is commonly described as B/B0 (the ratio of bound label at a given analyte concentration to that at zero analyte level). The (ln-logit) function was modified by adding 10% of (A−D) to D or subtracting 10% of (A−D) from A before recalculating the normalized signals (corresponding to two types of significant calibration error (shifting the value of A or D respectively). At signal levels intermediate between A and D, the change made was adjusted by 10%*(Original signal−D)/(A−D). FIG. 9 shows the computed errors in estimating the analyte concentrations for a 1% error in estimating A and D. As can be seen for the low analyte concentrations, the errors are pronounced even for small errors in the calibration parameters A and D.

FIGS. 10-13 illustrate an embodiment of this invention where the sample containing an unknown analyte concentration is spiked with a known concentration of the analyte to minimize calibration errors. Spiking can be achieved by a variety of methods, for example, by incorporating analyte in known quantities to the assay well during manufacture of the fluidic device. Separate spike wells could also be accommodated in the fluidic device described herein. FIG. 10 shows calibration using differences between signal response between unspiked and spiked samples. The amount of the spiked analyte is indicated by x2 and the original (endogenous concentration in the sample) is denoted as original concentration or x1 (pg/ml). The difference in signal between unspiked and spiked sample is plotted against the signal for the original concentration for various amounts of known amount of analyte (spike) introduced into the sample. The (ln-logit) parameters (for the top curve in FIG. 10) are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Original Calibration Parameters for Data Shown in FIG. 10 A 3.37E+04 B 1.01E+00 C 2.10E+02 D 3.56E+03

The data shown in the top curve in FIG. 10 were used in a recalibration exercise by calibrating against the difference in signal for each original concentration level and each level spiked with 200 pg/ml analyte. Equation 3 shown below was empirically derived and is useful in calculating the original endogenous concentration of analyte. The best-fit parameter values in Table 2 were computed by minimization of the sum of the square of the differences between target and calculated analyte values. Concentration=C*((A−D)/((Signal−D)ˆ(1/B))+E [Equation 3]. TABLE 2 Calculated Parameter Values for 1-point Spike Calibration A 1.20E+02 B 1.996189 C 292.7824 D −0.14393 E −287.931

This calibration was verified as shown in FIG. 11 (log scale) and FIG. 12 (linear scale). Note the regression equation was calculated for data in linear form. The formula resulted in near perfect results.

The results of one embodiment of this invention are shown in FIG. 13, where the extent of the recovery of the spike signal is used to correct for the concentration of the value of the unspiked sample. This method has the advantage that changes in the parameter C in the (ln-logit) equation due to, for example, reagent instability, are accounted for. The method involves the following steps: calculate x1 (endogenous conc.), and x2 (spike conc.) using original calibration; calculate recovery of spike as % (x2−x1)/spike [Equation 4]; correct x1 by recovery factor: (x1* 100/Spike recovery) [Equation 5].

This was tested with the calibration curve shown in FIG. 10 and the original calibration parameters of Table 1. As shown in Table 3, it was possible to use spike concentration values from 100-500 pg/ml and C values that varied from 500 to 50 such that the actual signals corresponding to the modified C values were changed very significantly from what had been the case with the original C value and the spike recovery (calculated with the original C value ranged from 42-420% respectively, yet the recovery of the unspiked sample (once corrected for the recovery of the spike) was 100% over the entire calibration range. This effect is graphically illustrated in FIG. 14, where the C parameter is varied between 50 to 500 (a ten fold range), but the corrected values for the analyte concentration (x1) accurately reflects the expected analtye concentration. TABLE 3 Effects of changes in the C parameter on spike and original analyte recovery at two original concentration levels x2 x1 x1 x2 S recovery recovery C Pg/ml S (x1) pg/ml (x1 + x2) % % 500 100 2.88E+04 500 1.73E+06 42 100 210 100 2.40E+04 500 1.13E+04 100 100 50 100 1.36E+04 500 5.83E+03 420 100 500 316 2.21E+04 500 1.50E+04 42 100 210 316 1.56E+04 500 9.66E+03 100 100 50 316 7.61E+03 500 5.25E+03 420 100 500 100 2.88E+04 200 2.25E+04 42 100 210 100 2.40E+04 200 1.60E+04 100 100 50 100 1.36E+04 200 7.80E+03 420 100 500 316 2.21E+04 200 1.84E+04 42 100 210 316 1.56E+04 200 1.22E+04 100 100 50 316 7.61E+03 200 6.16E+03 420 100

The Table 3, x1 is the endogenous concentration and x2 is the spike concentration; S is the signal level corresponding to the designated analyte concentration; x2 recovery is the apparent recovery of x2 and x1 recovery is calculated (using Equation 5) after compensating for x2 recovery (using Equation 4).

The spike level must be carefully chosen. The optimal level will be a compromise between the operating range of the assay and the likely range of concentrations of samples. If it is too low, the change in signal caused by the spike will be too small to be reliably measured. If it is too high, the assay response will be too shallow to reliably measure the spike. The ideal spike level would change the measured signal by much more than the standard deviation in the signal. In the above example, the assay range had been adjusted to make measurements for sample with concentrations in the range of about 0 to about 500 pg/ml and spikes of about 200 to about 1000 pg/ml would likely be useful.

In some embodiments the following various guidelines for choosing spike levels can be followed: spikes should change the observed signal across the desired range by at least 10%; spikes should be in the same range as the anticipated mid range of sample concentrations; spikes should be less than about three times the original C value. Note that the useful part of the dose-response is from about 0.2*C to about 5*C.

The following example illustrates the estimation of endogenous TxB2 concentrations using spike recovery. Two citrated human plasma samples were analyzed by the two-step assay. Aliquots of the samples were also supplemented (spiked) with known concentrations of TxB2 prior to assay. Some samples were also supplemented with indomethacin (0.1 mM) and/or EDTA (5 mM). Samples were stored either flash-frozen then thawed or refrigerated unfrozen prior to assay. These procedures generated a set of samples with various original endogenous concentrations (storage and freezing and thawing tends to cause platelet activation and production of TxB2; indomethacin inhibits TxB2 production).

The results of the above experiment are shown in FIG. 13. Sample 5A was known to have a very low TxB2 concentration (estimated to be <10 pg/ml). When the dose-response of the assay in sample 5 was used to calibrate the assay, the concentration was assumed to be zero. Dose responses for the other samples 4A, 4N, 5N were then plotted and it was observed that their response corresponded to higher concentrations of TxB2 and could be fitted to the 5N response by moving each to the left (in the direction of lower concentration) by an amount corresponding to removing a certain fixed TxB2 concentration from each the known spike levels. All the samples had responses that were almost identical in shape to that of sample 5N. When the curves fitted as closely as possibly to the A5 curve, the concentration of TxB2 notionally removed corresponds to the estimate of the TxB2 concentration in the sample.

The original data of FIG. 13 were represented in FIG. 15 by the best fit (ln-logit) approximation. The Solver function in Microsoft Excel was used to compute a value of TxB2 that caused the A5 response to approximate that of the sample N5. As can be seen, this generated a good fit and the computed value (471 pg/ml) is an estimate of the concentration difference between TxB2 levels in the two samples.

In another embodiment of our invention a single point can could be used (all the points fit closely to the calibration curve, so any single point could have been used) rather than a multi point spike that was illustrated in the earlier FIGS. 10-13. The following experiment illustrates this concept. Two plasma samples were spiked to many levels of TxB2 and assayed by the two-step method. Assays were calibrated using buffer calibrators rather than plasma-based materials. Results are presented in FIG. 16. Plasma was analyzed as described earlier. Data in FIG. 16 are plotted on a log scale. The concentration of unspiked samples was calculated from the calibration and the concentration of spiked samples taken as “endogenous+spike.” Results are plotted only for the spiked samples. As can be seen, there was desirable correlation between the calculated and known values over the range of about 50 to about 10,000 pg/ml. When recovery was estimated for spikes in the range about 40 to about 2,500 pg/ml, the correlation was 99.7%.

Spike recovery method for correcting the calibration parameters are useful for compensating temperature effects on immunoassays in self-contained disposable analytical systems, also some times referred to as handheld analytical systems or assay systems. As is well known, instabilities in temperature during an assay introduce significant errors in the estimated analyte concentration. Temperature effects on calibration of immunoassays have the strongest impact on the A, C and D parameters of the (ln-logit) calibration. It is likely that the B (shape) parameter is minimally affected by temperature changes. As shown above, the spike recovery method can correct for errors introduced in the C parameter and hence could be an excellent approach for correcting temperature induced errors in computing the calibration parameters of the (ln-logit) equation. Similarly, normalizing signal levels to the zero analyte calibrator level, as described earlier, can compensate for errors in the A and D parameters, which are again negatively influenced by temperature changes.

Internal calibration and/or spike recovery means of calibration have significant advantages over conventional factory-calibration methods. One obvious advantage is that two quantities of assay-related information are used to compute the assay result rather than one, which improves the reliability of the assay. A second advantage is that this approach compensates, to a large extent, reagent instability. Another advantage is that several instrument, assay environment, and procedural variables are factored into the assay results.

Other uncontrolled changes in system response, besides temperate change, can also negatively impact the computed A and D parameters. For example, FIG. 17 shows the time course of the signal generation during an assay. To correct for these errors, one embodiment of the claimed invention is to compare assay signals B in a fluidic device with the B0 signal so to eliminate errors due to variation of the absolute value of assay signals due to uncontrolled changes in system response. This concept was verified by the following experiment.

A competitive immunoassay for TxB2 was set up using the protocol described in Assay Designs Product Literature for their corresponding Correlate-CLEIA kit (catalog 910-002). An alkaline phosphatase conjugate was prepared as described earlier and was diluted 1:112,000 and substituted for the kit conjugate. A and D parameters are the calibration parameters used in the (log-logit) fit to the assay response. Best fit values were obtained at each time point. Note that at zero time the A and D parameters are not measured, but all signal values would be (are known to be) zero. The ratio D/A was multiplied by 1e6 so as to be presentable on the same scale. The A and D values when plotted against time vary significantly, particularly the A value (zero analyte). As seen from the straight line with practically zero slope, the scaled D/A remains constant over the time span.

The above experimental data were then analyzed by normalizing the assay signal (B) to signal at zero analyte concentration (B0). Using this normalized signal (B/B0), (log-logit) best fits were obtained for each time point and averaged. Concentrations of analyte were computed using these calibration parameters for each time. FIG. 18 shows the derived concentrations that were plotted against the A parameter derived for each individual time point. Each line corresponds to different analyte levels (pg/ml) ranging from about 39 to about 10,000 pg/ml. As can be seen from FIG. 18, although signal values changed by about 2-fold during the course of the experiment, the derived analyte concentration was essentially constant over the analyte concentration spanning a range of about 39 to about 10,000 pg/ml. The variation of calculated concentration was computed and found to average only 2.7% over the calibration range of 39-625 pg/ml (which spans most of the range).

A calibration spike can be enabled by adding analyte to the antibody (or other solid phase capture agent) during manufacturing, and then drying subsequently adding analyte to the appropriate well during manufacturing (then drying), or adding analyte to a portion of assay buffer which is then routed to-the appropriate well. Methods 1 and 2 have a risk which is that the spiked analyte could be flushed from the well as sample or buffer enters. This may be handled in one of several ways such as relying on the tightness of the antigen: antibody interaction for the brief time the well is subject to flowing sample or buffer (which exit from the well), or careful management of liquid flow and placing the spike well as that most distal to the incoming liquid (last well to fill has the least flow through).

Errors in measuring analyte concentrations could also be due to variability in the pre-analysis phase. The primary cause of this type of errors is due to the patient collecting an incorrect volume of sample or where the sample integrity has been compromised. Errors due to incorrect sampling volume can by corrected by a variety of means. One method is to measure the volume of the sample during a pre-processing step. If the measured volume is significantly different from the expected volume, the patient could be instructed to provide a new sample. This could be accomplished by, for example, the wireless communication with the external device as described herein. Alternatively, the analytical methods or algorithms on the external device could be recalibrated to compensate for the change in the sample volume. The recalibration could be using any of the standard calibration techniques or the modifications to the calibration process, which have been described herein.

The following is a description of one embodiment of a method for determining the accuracy of the volume of the sample provided to the sample collection unit of a fluidic device described herein. The sample collection unit can be lined with conductive elements spaced apart at known separations—similar to the graduations on a measuring cylinder or jar. The location of each conductor can correspond to a specific sample volume. As fluid comes into contact with the conductor, the measured conductivity of that conductor would be markedly increased. By identifying the highest placed conductor that has undergone the conductivity change, the volume of the sample in the sample collection unit can be computed.

Alternatively, if the sample volume has to meet a minimum, a conductive element could be placed at the appropriate level in the well. When the cassette is introduced into the handheld (or the sample holder is introduced in the analytical system), thereby the patient has indicated that she has completed the sampling process, and if the conductivity of the sensor remains at the baseline level, it could be easily concluded that the patient has not provided the required sample volume. The patient could be given the appropriate feedback such as replacing the sample or replenishing it. Alternatively, the back-end server or computer at the network headquarters could be informed of the issue and appropriate corrective measures taken. An alternative to the electrical sensing for the correct volume could be using known optical sensing means.

Sample integrity could be affected by many factors, some intrinsic to the patient and some that are extrinsic. Following are some of the sources of errors in sample integrity: (i) mixing of interstitial fluid with blood; (ii) variability in the hematocrit concentration; (iii) hemolysis; and (iv) activation of platelets and sample clotting.

Occasionally, interstitial fluid may leak from a finger-puncture wound and could mix with blood. Alternatively, if the patient had liquid on her hands due to washing prior to obtaining a blood sample, such liquid could also mix with blood plasma. Both fluids mentioned, above, interstitial fluid and wash liquid, contain no red cells and would mix with the blood plasma. When the amount of interstitial fluid is large so that the effective hematocrit is very low, the measured concentration of the external standard (fluorescein) would be low. This signal could be used to conclude that the sample is inappropriate for analysis and that it could lead to incorrect results. When blood is contaminated by water (which has low conductivity), it would be possible to detect this by measuring the conductivity of the fluid part of the sample (blood plasma has a characteristic high conductivity not subject to variation from day-to-day or individual-to-individual). If the measured conductivity of the sample is lower than the plasma conductivity, it is likely that the sample has been contaminated.

Errors could also be due to incorrect operation of the instrument and means of detecting and compensating those errors are described below. One source of error could be that the disposable is not properly accommodated in the handheld system. Having a sensor detect and report the proper mating of the disposable in the handheld would be one means of avoiding this problem. Another source of errors is from the fluidic system, where there may be an issue with where the sample is applied in the sample well and the volume of the applied sample. This could again be addressed by the use of appropriate sensors which detect the application of a sample and report on the adequacy of the volume that is applied. Other fluidics related problems could be blocked channels, insufficient reagents, bubbles, etc., all of which again could be detected and reported by the use of appropriate sensors.

In some embodiments any of the errors described herein can be measured using sensors located on either the fluidic device or the reader assembly. In some embodiments an error messages could be displayed on an LCD screen in the reader assembly using the processing power of the microchip on the handheld. Alternatively, a signal from the sensors could be communicated to the external device which can then relay an error message to either the reader assembly or a third device such as a PDA or cell phone. Such action could be a message communicated to the patient in the form of an audio, video or simple text message that the patient could receive. In some embodiments the external server can transmit corrected calibration parameters to the reader assembly to compensate for any of the errors described herein.

In yet another embodiment, after the identifier is detected by an identifier detector as described herein to determine, for example, a protocol, if a signal transmitted by a sensor doesn't match the expected value for the sensor signal, then the external device can transmit a pre-programmed alert based on each cartridge bar code and sensed signal to either, for example, an LCD display on the reader assembly or to a handheld device, to take a designated action. Nonlimiting examples of error alerts, the problems they indicate, and required action to be taken are, for example: Error Code Symbol Problem Action Er1 Thermometer Temperature Wait until Temp out of range >10 or <35 C. Er2 Blood drop Blood sample If detected w/in 15 too small minutes of first sample add more blood, other wise use new cartridge Er3 Battery Power Do not start test disruption until power resumes Er4 Bar code symbol Cartridge Run test on a non expired expired cartridge Er5 Line through Cartridge Run test on a new fluidic device already used cartridge Er6 Phone receiver No Cell Phone Do not start test coverage until in coverage area Er7 Line through a box Reader Call Theranos malfunction Er8 Bottle with a “C” Calibration Run Calibration in the label overdue standard, then run test

After the identifier detector detects the identifier to determine a protocol and any sensed signals are detected and either patient notification is complete or calibration parameter are updated, the fluidic device calibration can occur, followed by the appropriate assay.

Despite the corrective actions described here, the generated analyte concentrations values could still be erroneous. For example, the actual analyte concentration could be well outside the expected range, and thus the calibration parameters used may be incorrect. Values which are unlikely, impossible or inconsistent with prior data for a particularly patient could be flagged and subjected to a software review. Values with suspect accuracy can be communicated to the appropriate decision maker, such as the patient's physician.

The concept of the reference therapeutic index (TI) and how it is computed is illustrated in FIGS. 19 and 20. A TI is computed from a retrospective analysis of many measured parameters, including the blood concentrations of drugs of interest, their metabolites, other analytes and biomarkers in blood that change concentrations due to the drugs the patient is consuming, physiologic parameters (such as blood pressure, respiratory rate, body temperature, heart rate, etc.), and clinical parameters that indicate disease progression (such as angina, stroke, infarct, etc.). Typically, many serial measurements would be made for the many treated patient and corresponding controls (unmedicated or placebo treated). The clinical parameter would be an “outcome parameter” (OP). The other measured parameters can be “input parameters” (IP).

For the retrospective analysis and TI computation, data from many subjects and their respective output and input parameters, including subject's relevant details such as height, weight, race, sex, family history, etc., would be populated in a database. Each candidate outcome parameter (stroke, infarct, angina, death, etc.) will be subject to multiple regression analysis against input parameters.

The multiple regression analysis is performed for each candidate OP versus all available IPs. Database columns are constructed by using each IP, each IPˆ2, and all cross-terms (IPi*IPj). The analysis is then performed using the equation: OPi=(a*IP1+b*IP2+ . . . n*IPn)+(aa*IP1ˆ2+bb*IP2ˆ2+ . . . +nn*IPnˆ2)+(aaa*IP1*IP2+bbb*IP1*IP3+ . . . +nnn*IPn−*IPn), where a . . . n, aa . . . nn, aaa . . . nnn are arbitrary constants.

Multiple regression analysis establishes the best fit to the equation and indicates which IPs are strong candidates for inclusion. Weakly correlated IPs are dropped and the analysis repeated until each candidate OP has an optimal relation to the remaining IPs. The therapeutic index will then have the form: TI=a*IP+cc*IP3ˆ2+nnn*IP3*IP5+  (Equation 6).

FIG. 20 illustrates the computation of a TI and the use of the TI concept for determining therapeutic efficacy (the therapeutic index is also indicated by the term efficacy index). The example illustrated in FIG. 20 shows the time course of successful drug therapy of a disease state (such as atherosclerosis) that is indicated by three biochemical analytes represented by parameters A, B and C. The disease is treated (with for example a Statin) starting on day zero.

Parameters A, B and C are measured daily using an ambulatory system as described herein. At the outset, relative to “ideal levels”, Parameter A (for example HDL-cholesterol) is elevated, Parameter B (for example HDL-cholesterol) is low and Parameter C (for example, alanine aminotransferase, an indicator of liver damage) is normal. All parameters (A, B, C) are presented normalized to their respective ideal level. As therapy proceeds, the drug causes the levels of A and B to approach normal values but at different rates. Analyte C remains normal indicating the drug is not causing liver damage. The relative risk of an outcome for the patient is represented by an initially unknown TI. As described above, TI is a surrogate to the outcome parameter that reflects the physiological functions of the patient (blood pressure, etc.) or other pre-identified factors in a patient record and can be indicative of improvement in the patient's condition. We further assume that parameter TI is influenced by parameters A and B. In certain cases, at the beginning of the study this relationship remains to be determined.

Data from the monitoring system (device input) and the patient input are analyzed by multiple regression of TI and measured values A, B and C, as described above. In the example shown, these data are analyzed using multiple regression analysis, which fits parameter TI as a function of parameters A, B, C and their squares and the pair-wise cross terms (A*B, etc.) As shown in FIG. 20, for the simulated values shown in FIG. 19, an excellent fit was obtained (R{circumflex over (])}2=0.99) when all parameters were included. It is evident from inspection of the fit that most of the parameters can be eliminated leaving only A and A*B. When this is done the fit is still very good (Rˆ2=0.95).

The multiple regression derived function is not identical to the base function which generated the first candidate TI data, but works well to compute an estimate of TI from (typically fewer) measured parameters,.prior to clinical validation, if necessary. The appropriate threshold levels of TI, or the optimum TI is termed as TI_(ref) (or “action threshold value”.) Expert review can then determine the optimum therapeutic index for that particular patient or patient class. If the computed TI exceeds the preset TI_(ref), appropriate action can be taken. An appropriate action could be alerting the physician, stopping the medication or the like. As can be understood, the appropriate TI_(ref) for a patient would be decided based on the healthcare provider's judgment for that individual patient. The form of the TI is derived as a one time exercise using expert analysis of the data set derived from clinical studies and/or existing clinical information.

Once the TI_(ref) is identified, then the use of this parameter is illustrated in FIG. 22. Methods of measuring drug, analyte and biomarker concentrations and conducting a two-way communication with a database using a fluidic device and reader assembly are described in detail herein. The time course of various measured and computed parameters are shown in FIG. 22. The curve indicated CBX Dose illustrates the time course of a drug that is taken on a regular basis. The plotted values are normalized to what would be considered as “ideal levels” for that measurement. For example, if the expected ideal blood concentration of CBX is 100 ng/ml and if the measured concentration in blood is 100 ng/ml, the parameter value is 1.0 (with no offset) for CBX. Similarly, the concentrations of CXB, a metabolite of CBX, biomarkers Tx-M and PGI-M, which vary in response to the concentrations of the drug and the disease state, are also normalized to their ideal values and plotted. All the drug, analyte and biomarker concentrations could be measured using a system as described herein. As explained above, the TI_(ref) for this particular patient is plotted on FIG. 22 as a flat line. Using the parameter values (a . . . n, aa . . . nn, aaa . . . nnn) of Equation 6 and the measured input parameters (IP), the current TI for the patient is calculated. If the computed TI exceeds the TI_(ref) value, then an alert can be generated. The alert could be targeted to the patient's healthcare provider, who in turn can take the appropriate action. An appropriate action could be to watch the patient closely for other clinical indications and/or alter the dosage and drugs the patient is taking.

FIGS. 22 and 23 illustrate the concept as to how when the computed TI exceeds the TI_(ref) a proactive action could avert an ADR. In FIG. 23, the patient's TI exceeded TI_(ref) about day 15. The patient is monitored closely and as the TI values continue to increase after day 30, the physician intervenes and reduces the dosage. This action starts lowering the TI for the patient and ultimately retreats to an acceptable level about day 60.

One or more individuals or entities that are involved in the care of the patient (nurses, physicians, pharmacist, etc.) can be alerted when the computed TI exceeds the TI_(ref) so that they could take the appropriate action. Additionally, trends can be discerned and appropriate action takenn before a TI reaches a particular value.

In some embodiments many different analytes can be measured and construed as input parameters, IPs, while computing the TI. Such analytes that may be used are described herein. Additionally, the can be expanded or modified depending on the disease area as well. The appropriate list of parameters relating to certain diseases and drug treatments, for example, cancer and infectious diseases and patient on NSAIDS, are disclosed herein.

In another aspect of this invention, the TI is calculated using information derived from the patient's biological sample and patient information that is non-drug related, the device input. For example, in an ambulatory setting, information relating to concentration of drug, metabolite and other biological markers can be detected in blood as described herein. The patient can also input many non-drug related personal parameters. This “patient input” can relate to the patient's personal information, for example, height, weight, gender, daily exercise status, food intake, etc. The patient input could also be provided by the patient's healthcare provider. An example of a patient input parameter and the input means is shown in FIG. 24.

In some embodiments the device input and patient input are used to compute the TI. A reference TI for the patient is already known using retrospective analysis of the data contained in the database. In formulating the TI using multiple regression analysis, the parameters such as those shown in Equation 6 are used. The same parameters are then used with the device input and patient input to compute the TI. Comparing the TI to the TI_(ref), it is possible to determine the efficacy of the therapy. If the TI falls within a pre-determined range of TI_(ref), then the treatment is considered to be efficacious. Values below that range indicate that the treatment is ineffective and values higher then the range are considered to be undesirable and could lead to adverse events.

Another example illustrates the implementation of this invention for studying the efficacy of therapy in diseases where it is difficult to make frequent measurements and the efficacy of the treatment is difficult to quantify. An example is determining the efficacy of drug therapy in children with autism. Frequent sampling and concomitant laboratory analysis is impractical for children. Abnormalities in blood concentrations of certain metals are implicated in autism. Hence, following the blood concentration of certain metals, for example, zinc, in autistic children might shed light on the efficacy of an intervention. However, it has been reported that lowered concentrations of Zn, for example, due to a treatment does not imply that the therapy is working. It is an indicator, but not a definitive surrogate for determining therapeutic efficacy. Computing a TI and comparing it to a reference level would better indicate the efficacy. This is illustrated in FIG. 25 by simulating the concentration of various pertinent markers and their change due to a drug intervention in an autistic child.

The program can involve monitoring subjects and matched control individuals over time for toxic metals, surrogate markers for metals (metallothionein, etc.), and other biochemical markers. Subjects are those prone to, or afflicted with autism; controls are situation-matched people. It is not mandatory that there be a situation-matched control. The scenario assumes that during the study a significant “event” occurs. Events could be movement into a more or less risky environment or initiation of therapy. Subjects could be frequently monitored for several parameters (device input) using the ambulatory system described herein. Additional laboratory assays that are not determinable in the ambulatory system could be performed at a lower frequency using laboratory assays. Additional data such as patient information, local environment, use of drugs, diet, etc. would be logged (patient input). Of particular interest to this scenario is information such as exposure to lead, mercury etc.

The time course shown in FIG. 25 envisages an event (initiation of therapy) at 33 days. The subject who is exhibiting abnormal levels of CP and MT, gradually reverts to normal levels of markers. The TI captures the risk or safety level of the subject based on all information. The study will define the best inputs to determine TI.

As described above, TI can be used for determining the efficacy of drug treatment. A similar approach is also well suited for determining the efficacy of drugs during clinical trials. Additionally, this approach could be beneficially used to identify sub-groups of patients who respond well or poorly to a given treatment regimen. The ability to segregate responders from non-responders is an extremely valuable tool. The concept of using TI can be used not only during a therapeutic regimen, but for performing diagnostic tests to determine, for example, whether or not a patient is in need of a biopsy after a complete examination of prostate specific markers. 

1. A method of improving the accuracy of calibrating a fluidic system, comprising: a) providing a system for detecting an analyte in a bodily fluid from a subject comprising a fluidic device for providing said bodily fluid, said fluidic device having a calibration assembly and a reader assembly for detecting the presence of said analyte; b) measuring one or more parameters of a calibration curve associated with said fluidic device; c) comparing said one or more parameters with predetermined parameters associate with said fluidic device; d) adjusting a signal output by the ratio of said one or more parameters and said predetermined parameters.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein said predetermined parameters are parameters determined at the time the fluidic device is manufactured.
 3. The method of claim 2 wherein said predetermined parameters are replaced with said measured one or more parameters to be used in a calibration curve to scale a signal to determine said analyte concentration.
 4. A method of improving the calibration of a fluidic system, comprising: a) measuring a first signal in an original sample comprising a known quantity of an analyte: b) measuring a second signal after spiking said original sample with a known quantity of said analyte; c) plotting the difference between said first and second signals against a target value, wherein said target value is a signal expected for said known quantity of said analyte; and d) arriving at a best fit of parameters by minimizing the sum of the square of the differences between said target value and calculated analyte values.
 5. The method of claim 4 wherein said sample is provided to a fluidic device, said fluidic device comprising a sample collection unit and an assay assembly, wherein said sample collection unit allows a sample of bodily fluids to react with reactants contained within said assay assembly.
 6. A method of assessing the reliability of an assay for an analyte in a bodily fluid with the use of a fluidic device, comprising: a) providing a system, said system comprising a fluidic device, said fluidic device comprising a sample collection unit and an assay assembly, wherein said sample collection unit allows a sample of bodily fluid to react with reactants contained within said assay assembly, for detecting the presence of an analyte in a bodily fluid from a subject, and a reader assembly for detecting the presence of said analyte; b) sensing with a sensor a change in operation parameters under which the system normally operates.
 7. The method of claim 6 further comprising improving the reliability of said assay by adjusting the operating parameters to effect normal functioning of the system.
 8. The method of claim 6 wherein said sensor is associated with said fluidic device.
 9. The method of claim 8 where said sensor is capable of communicating said change to said reader assembly.
 10. The method of claim 6 wherein said change comprises a change in temperature.
 11. The method of claim 6 wherein said change comprises a change in pressure.
 12. The method of claim 6 where said sensor is associated with said reader assembly.
 13. The method of claim 12 where said sensor is capable of communicating said change to an external device.
 14. The method of claim 12 wherein said change comprises a change in temperature.
 15. The method of claim 12 wherein said change comprises a change in pressure.
 16. The method of claim 6, further comprising adjusting a calibration step of said system.
 17. The method of claim 6, further comprising wirelessly communicating said change via a handheld device.
 18. The method of claim 6 wherein said change is the presence of moisture in said fluidic device.
 19. The method of claim 18 wherein said sensor comprises thiosyanate and iron salt.
 20. A method of performing a trend analysis on the concentration of an analyte in a subject, comprising: a) providing a fluidic device comprising at least one sample collection unit, an immunoassay assembly containing immunoassay reagents, a plurality of channels in fluid communication with said sample collection unit and/or said immunoassay assembly; b) actuating said fluidic device and directing said immunoassay reagents within said fluidic device; c) allowing a sample of bodily fluid of less than about 500 ul to react with said immunoassay reagents contained within said assay immunoassay assembly to yield a detectable signal indicative of the presence of said analyte in said sample; d) detecting said detectable signal generated from said analyte collected in said sample of bodily fluid; and e) repeating steps a) through d) for a single patient over a period of time to detect concentrations of said anayte, thereby performing said trend analysis. 